Sapiens

 Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind

By Dr. Yuval Noah Harari. 

Preview 

Dr. Yuval Harari, in his book, Sapiens, digs into the history of the present, modern day human the Homo sapiens while discussing what the future holds for our species as well. In four parts, Dr. Harari takes the readers on a journey through the history of mankind and its future, from the time of the Australopithecines to the modern-day Homo Sapien Sapiens (literally translating to Man wise wise) as we have very modestly labeled ourselves as. 

The Author and his style 

The author of the book is Dr. Yuval Noah Harari. He is a historian and a professor working for the Department of History at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. He specializes in world history and macro-historical processes. Sapiens was published in 2011, initially in Hebrew and quickly became a bestseller in Israel. In 2014, it was published in English, and since then it has been translated into over 30 languages. Dr. Harari’s writing style is simple with a critical undertone to it. Having studied human history, his text comes across as a story from which one can take away much factual information. The flow of his writing, despite being academic in nature, doesn’t appear to be so at all and makes it an enjoyable read. 

What to expect? Discover and unravel the journey of our ancestors and learn about the conditions that made us what and who we are today. 

We were and still are, like it or not, just another animal species. However, somewhere along the line, our intellectual abilities started advancing, and they just didn’t stop. Each change that took place and that added to our advantage had a catch as well, and our ancestors paid the price for it. Dr. Harari, through his narrative, helps us walk down the path that our ancestors might have once walked. He helps us understand how our actions have affected us and have led to the shaping of the world as we know it today.  

Although the reader might feel like the text sometimes tends to become preachy, that is not the case. The book is merely an amalgamation of scientific facts and a personal commentary on the theme that is being dealt with. As much as the book reflects Dr. Harari’s thoughts on certain topics, such as the concept of imagined realities, the consequences of the agricultural era, or for the more scientifically inclined reader, the concept of coexistence of the Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens; it also leaves it open to the readers to make up their own arguments and assumptions about the topic at hand. 

What you learn about after reading this book 

1. The increased brain power and high thinking capabilities were the very first things that set things in motion for Homo sapiens to become who they are today.  

2. We are, in fact, way more peaceful today (despite all the wars that happen today) than our ancestors. 

3. The development of language gave us an upper hand in becoming superior to our cousin species. 

4. As humans turned to farming and domestication, we wiped out about 50% of the total genera.  

5. As trade developed, the concept of money and writing came into existence. 

6. We, as a species, are more trusting than our ancestors. 

7. In future, we just might not be Homo sapiens anymore but someone new entirely. 

 

Everything comes at a price:  

"There is no such thing as a free lunch." There isn’t anything that comes to us free of cost. There is always something that we must give in order to receive something in return. As much as this statement holds true today, it did so back in the day of our ancestors as well. With the advent of the Cognitive Revolution, we were the animals that became God.  

The average brain size increased. Where 2.5 million years ago, our brain sizes measured around 600 cc, the modern Homo sapiens have an average brain of about 1200-1400 cc. The increased brain size of course worked to our advantage, but we have been paying the cost of thinking ever since.  

The brain of such capacity is not easy to fuel, given the fact that the brain consumes 25 percent of the body’s energy when the body is at rest. Not only did the energy demand grow but the muscles atrophied.  

The females of the species suffered even more. As the brain size increased, so did the size of the cranium that holds it in. As a result, the heads of the newborns became much bigger than seen earlier. The hip of the female Homo sapiens was now narrower, and due to the increased cranium size of newborns, deaths during child birth became very common.  

Back aches, muscular problems, maternal mortality were all prices we paid for something we are so proud to own today, i.e., intellect, the thing that truly separates us from animals; or so we like to believe. Are we really superior to our ancestors, or just more dangerous and cruel?   

Living in a world that doesn’t exist beyond our stories 

The existence of things and beings is a philosophical question but one which has troubled Philosophers over the ages. "I think therefore I am," was what French philosopher Descartes had to offer as an answer to the question. He said that the fact that we can think and question our own existence proves that there exists a thinking entity-present in the form of the self-for the thought itself to exist in the first place.  

However, still, does something really exist beyond the realm of the stories that we create and pass on?  

Human beings are the only species that talk about things that do not exist outside their imagination. Let us take the example of Feudal societies and compare them with the modern society. Feudal societies were essentially divided into three classes, i.e., Clergy, Nobility and the Peasantry in that order of hierarchy. The three social classes enjoyed different rights and privileges according to their social standings. The modern society, however, believes in equal rights and individualism. Both societal orders worked during their respective times. Now, the question arises which one them is right? The answer is neither. The concept of societal hierarchy, as well as individualism, is man-made. We made it up. There is no biological basis stating that all individuals are equal or whether one section of us is “better” than the other.  

This doesn’t mean that we are living a lie. Imagined realities are not lies. Imagined reality means that the given story or fact or statement is believed by everyone. This fact, statement, or story will keep on persisting and will cause an effect in the world. Today, the majority of the population, if not all, believes in equal rights of individuals which makes the society stable and hence the concept exists.  

A history of bloodshed that surpasses the modern wars: 

Let us go back and take a look at our school history textbooks. They are filled with facts about wars that took place throughout the year and of plagues and famines that killed people. Even today, we think that the wars against nations are consuming lives after lives. Surely our ancestors lived a much better life? A life of peace, tranquility, and harmony perhaps. To think this would not make one naïve in any way because well, there were no guns or nuclear missiles back then and what would our ancestors have to fight about anyway?  

There are two schools of thought regarding this argument. One talks about the archeological findings that point towards the fact that in a certain region about 4.5% of the total population died due to violent attacks. It might not sound like much but compare it with the present time, and the picture that we are presented with is not a pretty one. The global average of people dying due to wars and violent crimes is 1.5%. In another region, the archeologists found a 12,000 years old cemetery, which on inspection pointed to a massacre of an entire tribe. However, in other areas, the inspection of remains could hardly point towards any form of violence that could have been inflicted.  

It is difficult to say for sure, what kind of a life our ancestors truly lived. However, keeping human nature in mind it would not be a surprise to find out that the primitive men were as aggressive and blood thirsty as their modern counterparts. 

 

No such thing as unnatural 

If we were to look up the word unnatural, the definition that would pop up would be somewhere along the line of, "something that does not follow the natural path." But what exactly is natural? Natural would be something that is governed by biological and chemical laws and thus exists. By these very definitions, it is needless to say that anything that is unnatural cannot simply exist. Biology simply wouldn’t allow that. Even if it were allowed to exist, it wouldn’t survive. 

 For example, take the case of the Tay-Sachs disease. This disease arises when there is a mutation in chromosome number 15. Children who are born with Tay Sach’s disease cannot live long, and die by the age of 4, if not earlier. A simple shift from the biology’s design results in the death of the organism proving that which isn’t natural ceases to exist. 

 With the rise of the order of humanity, came into play the concept of culture. Culture would often put restrictions, stating that things that one was being stopped from doing were unnatural. But, if something were “unnatural” it would have no existence and hence would need no prohibition. The argument that is often presented from the culture’s side is often that “our ancestors did not indulge in such behavior/ did not do those things” How does that make anything unnatural?  

Our ancestors did not eat the same food that we do today. They did not rely on technology or use toilet paper; does that make all these things unnatural? As rightly put, "Biology enables, culture forbids." 

Agricultural Revolution- The biggest scam?  

Ten to twelve thousand years ago, the hunters and gatherers turned to farmers. Agriculture is regarded as one of the greatest advancements of all time. It allowed us to control what we wanted from nature, to mold things to suit our needs. When one looks at farming from an overall perspective, there is no denying the immense advantage that it had to offer to the population. However, from an individualistic point of view, the picture changed drastically.  

The average human worked longer hours and did more manual labor than his forager ancestor. The farmers were subjected to a life fueled by hunger and disease all for the benefit of more food. 

But, there can be no denying that the agricultural revolution played a huge role in the increase of population. Farming allowed more food to be available to the masses which lead to a drastic increase in population. As the population exploded, the society diversified, and new sectors came into existence such as politics, science, merchant trade, and writing. The agricultural revolution’s part in shaping the human society simply cannot be ignored. 

 

The advantage of language 

In our hubris, we like to think of our species as the only intelligent one out there. But that is far from the truth. However, one thing that does truly set us apart from other species and our ancestors is our language. The development of language worked to the evolutionary advantage of our species and still, to this day does. Now, one might argue that almost every species out there must have a language with which they communicate with their members, so what makes our language so special? The answer lies in the fact that our language is extremely supple.  

A monkey might be able to inform its members with his cry of oncoming danger, but, it cannot tell its members about how he saw, say two elephants fighting early morning over a tree trunk. Only we, the Homo sapiens can do that. We can create stories, describe things in-depth, add to it or leave information out. Moreover, we as a species are social in nature. We depend on social cooperation and language is a means of it.  

We will talk to and befriend people who share our thinking and with whom we can talk about things that are common to us. As true as this statement stands today, it did so thousands of years ago too. The Neanderthals did not have as developed a sense of language as the Homo sapiens did and hence they were at a disadvantage. This is because the Homo sapiens could band together and plan out strategies. They could convey to their members how they would attack and what things they were supposed to avoid. Meanwhile, all the Neanderthals could do was inform each other that there was danger, much like a monkey’s warning cry.  

Trade, Writing and Money: 

If we were to talk about the pre-agricultural life, it was simplistic in nature. If you were low on something, you could ask your community to share what they had in surplus and you help would be provided. Then came the time of agricultural advancements and along with it came the barter system.  

People were developing skills in the fields of handicraft and weaving, and they could exchange these products with the farmers. The farmers would get tools in exchange for grains. But the problem with barter system was that more often than not, it was difficult to find someone who would have what you needed and at the same time want what you had to offer.  

Another problem was that one of the people involved in the exchange might make future promises regarding the transactions. However, how does one hold him accountable in the future if he doesn’t pay? To do away with this, Homo sapiens developed writing. They would scribble the transactions on clay or stone and know what a person was supposed to pay.  

With time came the concept of money which was a standardized means of exchange. It did not matter if one did not have, for example, honey to exchange for wool. One could pay the person with wool with money and they could use this money to get the honey!  

The inevitable change to come 

The only constant in life is change. We evolved from ape-like beings that used to swing on trees and eat what was available to them to human-like creatures that could walk upright and hunt for their food. Today, we, the Homo sapiens, have mastered technology and we talk about science and humanities. We are nothing like our ancestors who existed ten or fifteen thousand years ago. So, it shouldn’t come as a surprise to anyone that there very well might come a time when a completely new species of the genus Homo might rule the Earth, say, ten thousand years from today.  

Evolution is an ongoing process and its currency understands neither pain nor hunger. All it cares about is whose DNA copies are favorable and can be replicated and increased in number. However, it might not even be evolution that changes us, rather it could be our own doing. With the scientific advancements we just might end up replacing natural selection with intelligent design of our own. 

Maybe we, the Homo sapiens, won’t exist in the future or we might be the rulers of the planet. As much as we would like to, we do not have the answer, nor do we possess the power, yet, to predict what is left to unfold. 

Final summary: 

Whether you believe that we descended from Adam and Eve or that we climbed down from trees in search of food, began walking upright and came to be who we are today, there is no denying that human beings of today are not who they were a 100 years ago, let alone millions of years ago. As our thinking capacity and ability grew, we invented tools of stone and iron, discovered fire thus making the inedible edible and unleashing a deadly weapon upon those who dared make us their prey.  

The hunter and gathers turned into farmers and domesticators which was a huge step in the history of humankind, for the better or, the worse. Advancements in the fields of science and technology have eased our lives while making us their slaves at the same time. Who is to say what the future holds for us? Our ancestors made leaps and bounds and allowed us to become who we are today.  

Today, we are making leaps and bounds too, although at a cost that our future descendants might have to pay. Moreover, it wouldn’t be a stretch to state that the future Homo sapiens would be drastically different from us because whether you believe or not, the hands of nature simply do not stop ticking. Add to it, the insatiable thirst for knowledge of human beings, we are surely in for a ride.